Cultural differences in non-verbal communication constitute one of the key areas of intercultural research, which is of significant importance for the effectiveness of cooperation in multicultural organizations. Analysis of available research shows that most significant cultural differences in non-verbal behavior concern five main dimensions: directness and expressiveness, individualism, masculinity, distance, and power, as well as the high and low-context dimension. Understanding these differences is fundamental for effective intercultural communication, especially in the context of advancing globalization and increasing diversity within employee teams.
Theoretical Foundations of Non-verbal Communication in an Intercultural Context
Non-verbal communication is an inseparable element of human interaction, serving a number of important functions: it enhances the meaning of verbal messages, complements or contradicts them, and regulates interpersonal interactions. This is particularly evident in the intercultural context, where the same gestures, facial expressions, or spatial behaviors can have radically different meanings depending on the culture of the interlocutors. According to research described in “Network Magazyn,” culture is primarily a non-verbal phenomenon, as most of its aspects are learned more through observation and imitation than through direct verbal instruction. Fundamental cultural values are passed on implicitly, without conscious participation, mainly through non-verbal means.
Edward Twitchell Hall, recognized as the creator of proxemics, claims that “Culture is communication, and communication is culture,” thus emphasizing the inseparable connection between these two concepts. Hall also concludes that one must learn to read the silent messages of culture as easily as printed and spoken messages, which is essential for effective communication both within one’s own culture and beyond its borders. Culture shapes the way people send and receive non-verbal messages, which means that the same behaviors can be interpreted differently in various cultural contexts.
Intercultural research in the field of non-verbal communication indicates that, although non-verbal communication is a universal phenomenon, the meanings of non-verbal signals are not universal. They vary significantly across cultures and are often ambiguous. Therefore, it is important for individuals working in international business environments to have at least a basic understanding of how non-verbal signals are transmitted within foreign cultures.
Key Dimensions of Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication
High-Context and Low-Context Cultures
One of the most important dimensions differentiating non-verbal communication across cultures is the division into high-context and low-context cultures. High-context cultures rely mainly on non-verbal communication and use elements such as relational proximity, social hierarchy, and deep cultural knowledge, which are often not clearly defined. In these cultures, body language, the status of the person, and tone of voice are particularly significant.
Members of high-context cultures typically have close, long-term relationships, which allow them to know the behavioral and thinking rules. These rules do not need to be explicitly stated and may sometimes even be unwritten, making these cultures difficult for individuals who do not understand the unwritten cultural rules. In high-context cultures’ non-verbal communication, facial expressions, eye movements, or tone of voice often carry more weight than the words themselves.
In contrast to high-context cultures, low-context cultures rely much more on words themselves. Communication in these cultures is more direct and precise, and relationships are shorter. In low-context cultures, statements are characterized by clarity, directness, and purposefulness. Conciseness, unambiguity, and effectiveness of communication are valued. Verbal skills and the ability to convey detailed information accurately are important.
Directness and Expressiveness in Non-verbal Communication
An important dimension of cultural differences in non-verbal communication is directness and expressiveness. Behaviors that signal directness consist of activities that indicate a desire to establish closer contact with another person, manifested through friendliness, proximity, and availability. Cultures with a high level of directness-related behaviors are known as “contact cultures,” because their members stand closer to each other and often touch. Countries such as Saudi Arabia and France are examples of such cultures.
Proxemics and Cultural Differences in Perception of Space
Proxemics, the study of the use of space in communication, is one of the key areas where cultural differences are evident. From the perspective of non-verbal communication, including cultural differences, proxemics concerns the space related to contact with groups of people and the surroundings. Research on space and territoriality shows that different cultures have varying norms regarding interpersonal distance, which can lead to misunderstandings in intercultural interactions.
Specific Examples of Non-verbal Communication Differences Between Cultures
Eye Contact and Facial Expressions
The way eye contact is maintained is one of the most visible manifestations of cultural differences in non-verbal communication. Bratanic distinguishes seven modalities of non-verbal communication, among which eye contact and facial expressions are included. In some cultures, intense eye contact is a sign of honesty and interest, while in others, it may be perceived as a lack of respect or even aggression.
Facial expressions and emotions shown through facial expressions or microexpressions are the second important part of non-verbal communication, as the human face is the primary source of emotional feedback. Communication through facial expressions helps enrich the meaning of spoken words with emotions conveyed through specific facial movements; however, their interpretation may vary significantly depending on the culture.
Touch and Physical Contact
Haptics, the study of the touch aspect of communication, reveals significant cultural differences in the acceptability and meaning of touch. In contact cultures, touch is a natural element of communication, while in others, it may be perceived as an invasion of personal space. For example, handshakes as a social behavior can sometimes convey more information than words, but their interpretation is strongly culturally conditioned.
Gestures and Body Posture
Kinesics, which deals with the communicative dimension of movement, includes body positioning, posture, gestures, and other types of physicality related to movement. Research shows that the same gesture can have different or even opposing meanings in different cultures. For example, the raised thumbs gesture, which in Western culture means approval, is perceived as offensive in some Middle Eastern countries.
Non-verbal Communication in the Context of Gender Culture
An interesting aspect of cultural differences in non-verbal communication is the dimension of masculinity and femininity in culture. As one study emphasizes, communication in feminine countries is characterized by a certain “softness,” where speakers are always mindful of maintaining good relations and do not want to offend anyone. Conversations are spoken more softly than loudly, and diminutives are often used. In masculine countries, communication serves primarily for the exchange of information rather than maintaining interpersonal bonds. Conversations are louder, statements are sharper, more swearing is used, and quarrels are not avoided.
The Impact of Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication on Organizational Functioning
Non-verbal Communication in Multicultural Teams
Working in multicultural teams presents particular challenges related to non-verbal communication. Research by Korovyakovska and colleagues has shown that the three most important factors contributing to misunderstandings in multicultural workgroups are social cultural values, individual cultural values, and communication openness. Notably, proficiency in English turned out to be a less important factor than communication openness, indicating that barriers in intercultural communication are often non-verbal rather than linguistic.
Cultural differences in non-verbal communication may cause a misinterpreted message, and moreover, they can even offend the recipient. Therefore, it is important for employees and managers in multicultural organizations to be aware of these differences and be able to interpret them appropriately.
The Role of Leaders in Managing Non-verbal Communication in Multicultural Organizations
Effective leaders of multicultural teams must be particularly sensitive to differences in non-verbal communication. As research on the impact of verbal and non-verbal leader behaviors shows, non-verbal behaviors can repeat, replace, complement, accentuate, or contradict verbal behaviors. Awareness of these dependencies is crucial for effective leadership in multicultural organizations.
Managers managing multicultural teams should focus on cultural differences among employees, but research shows that this is often not the case. As a result, misunderstandings and conflicts occur, which can negatively affect the effectiveness of the entire team.
Strategies for Effective Non-verbal Communication in an Intercultural Context
Developing Cultural Awareness
Effective intercultural communication requires careful understanding of the communication style adopted in a given culture, which in many important respects may turn out to be completely different from the style dominant in our country. A culturally skilled consultant is one who is aware and sensitive to their own cultural baggage. This means rejecting the ethnocentric view that the communication style of our own culture is the best.
Adapting Non-verbal Communication to the Cultural Context
Research suggests that the key to effective intercultural communication is understanding the cultural differences that divide the nations of the world. Adapting one’s own non-verbal communication style to the cultural expectations of the interlocutor can significantly increase communication effectiveness and prevent potential misunderstandings.
Building Communication Openness
Empirical studies have shown that communication openness is one of the most important factors in reducing the risk of misunderstandings in multicultural teams. According to the authors of the study, it is the lack of communication openness, rather than insufficient language knowledge, that more often leads to verbal misunderstandings. Therefore, it is important to create a culture in organizations that supports open communication, taking into account cultural differences in non-verbal communication.
Examples
Empirical studies have shown that communication openness is one of the most important factors in reducing the risk of misunderstandings in multicultural teams. According to the authors of the study, it is the lack of communication openness, rather than insufficient language knowledge, that more often leads to verbal misunderstandings. Therefore, it is important to create a culture in organizations that supports open communication, taking into account cultural differences in non-verbal communication.
Table: Differences in Non-verbal Communication Between Selected Cultures
| Behavior | Culture X | Culture Y | Explanation and Sources |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Eye contact | USA, Germany (Western cultures) – Maintaining eye contact signifies respect, confidence, and openness. – Avoiding it may be seen as insincerity. |
Japan, China (Eastern cultures) – Avoiding prolonged eye contact expresses respect, especially towards superiors. – Too intense eye contact may be perceived as confrontational. |
Western cultures (low context) value directness (Hall, 1966). Eastern cultures (high context) focus on subtlety in non-verbal signals (Hofstede, 2001; Knapp & Hall, 2006). |
| 2. Handshake | Germany, USA – A firm, brief handshake signifies professionalism and confidence. |
India, South Asian countries – A gentler handshake is preferred (or hands folded in a greeting gesture). – A too firm handshake may be perceived as aggressive. |
Related to the individualism–collectivism dimension (Hofstede, 2001). In highly individualistic cultures, assertiveness is more valued. |
| 3. “OK” gesture (circle with fingers) | USA, UK – “All is well,” a positive signal of approval. |
Brazil, Turkey – Offensive or vulgar connotation; associated with obscene meanings. |
Differences in the connotations of symbols depending on local historical and linguistic conditions (Knapp & Hall, 2006; Morris, 1994). |
| 4. Thumbs up | USA, Europe – A popular gesture of approval (“good,” “great”). |
Iran, some Middle Eastern countries – May be interpreted as offensive, akin to giving the middle finger. |
Hand gestures in many Middle Eastern regions have sensitive and often negative connotations (Morris, 1985). |
| 5. Nodding | Western Europe – Nodding means “yes”; shaking the head means “no.” |
Bulgaria, parts of the Balkans – Nodding means “no”; tilting the head backward means “yes.” |
Historical conditioning and local tradition; an exception in Europe (Vassileva, 1997). |
| 6. Interpersonal distance | USA, Scandinavia – Distance in conversation about 60–100 cm (personal space). – Getting too close is perceived as an invasion of privacy. |
Latin America (Mexico, Brazil) – A closer distance (30–60 cm) and more frequent physical contact are preferred. |
Due to differences in proxemics (Hall, 1966). “High contact” cultures (e.g., Latin) allow for closer proximity, signaling greater warmth. |
| 7. Smile | USA – Part of “culture of politeness”; smiling at strangers is the norm and indicates a positive attitude. |
Russia, Finland – Smiling is reserved for close ones; public, frequent smiling may be seen as insincere or childish. |
Related to emotional expression control in more collectivist and/or restrained cultures (Matsumoto, 1990; Hofstede, 2001). |
| 8. Touching the head | Western countries – Typically a neutral gesture (e.g., patting a child). |
Buddhist countries (Thailand, Laos) – The head is a sacred part of the body, touching it by a stranger is a faux pas. |
Differences arise from religion and beliefs: in Buddhism, the head is considered the most spiritual part of a person (Morris, 1994). |
| 9. Showing the sole of the shoe | West (e.g., Europe) – Neutral or of little importance (though generally considered rude in formal situations). |
Arab countries, some parts of Asia – Very offensive, symbol of disrespect (feet are considered “unclean”). |
Deeply rooted cultural taboos; throwing a shoe at a politician in Arab countries is considered a serious insult (Morris, 1985; Knapp & Hall, 2006). |
| 10. Eating with the left hand | Western countries – Neutral; no moral norms related to it. |
Islamic countries, India – The left hand is considered unclean (used for hygiene purposes), eating with it is improper. |
Religious-hygienic conditioning and cultural tradition, deeply rooted in daily life (Hofstede, 2001). |
| 11. Silence in conversation | Japan – Silence is considered a sign of reflection and respect for the speaker. |
USA, Anglo-Saxon countries – Longer silences cause discomfort, interpreted as a lack of interest. |
Differences between high-context and low-context cultures (Hall, 1966). In Japan, silence is a message in itself (Lebra, 1987). |
| 12. Crossing legs | Western countries – Neutral, comfortable sitting position. |
Arab countries, parts of Asia – Considered inappropriate, especially if the sole of the shoe is visible. |
Again, an issue of showing the soles (see point 9). In some social contexts, it may be seen as an affront. |
| 13. Waving hand | Western countries – A friendly greeting at a distance (waving with the whole hand). |
Some Asian countries (e.g., Malaysia) – Waving with the whole hand is reserved for calling animals; with people, it is improper. |
Gesture connotation depends on local conventions; using only a bent hand is recommended (Morris, 1994). |
| 14. Folding hands (namaste) | India, Nepal – A gesture of respect, greeting, a form of subtle non-verbal contact. |
Western countries – Mainly associated with spiritual practices (e.g., yoga); rare in daily relationships. |
Indicates spiritual and religious value in South Asian cultures. In the West, it is perceived as exotic or related to meditation. |
| 15. Cheek kissing | France, Italy, Mediterranean countries – A standard form of greeting among friends (sometimes also in business, depending on the relationship). |
USA, UK, Japan – May be considered too familiar in official contexts; a handshake or a slight nod is preferred. |
Differences in the degree of acceptable physical contact in public and business spaces (Hall, 1966; Knapp & Hall, 2006). |
| 16. Punctuality | Germany, Switzerland, Japan – Highly valued; being late is a sign of disrespect or poor organization. |
Latin America, Middle East – Time is more flexible; slight delays are considered normal. |
Related to time orientation and communication style: monochronic (Germany, Japan) vs. polychronic (Latin America) – see Hall (1966). |
| 17. Body posture | Sweden, Nordic countries – Relaxed sitting, no emphasis on gestures expressing authority (e.g., not putting feet on the table). |
Arab countries – Exposing the sole of the shoe is considered extremely offensive. |
Differences in the perception of hierarchy and respect. Countries with a high power distance emphasize posture more (Hofstede, 2001; Morris, 1985). |
| 18. Head movements (so-called head wobble) | India – The characteristic side-to-side “wobble” of the head often means interest or agreement. |
Western cultures – May be incorrectly interpreted as indecision or lack of understanding. |
Lack of a universal way to express “yes” or “no” – context is key (Vassileva, 1997). |
Conclusions and Practical Recommendations
The analysis of research on cultural differences in non-verbal communication highlights the key importance of this aspect for the effectiveness of multicultural organizations. Non-verbal communication, although often underrated, is a fundamental element in building intercultural understanding. Differences in the interpretation of gestures, facial expressions, touch, or interpersonal space can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts, but with proper awareness and skills, they can also become a source of cultural enrichment and increase team effectiveness.
In the practical management of multicultural organizations, it is advisable to take into account differences in non-verbal communication when designing training programs, recruitment processes, and communication strategies. It is particularly important to develop intercultural competence in the management team, which should be aware of its own cultural baggage and differences in non-verbal communication between representatives of different cultures. Only such an approach will allow fully utilizing the potential of cultural diversity in the organization.
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